1. Is surrogacy regulated by a specific law in your country? Yes. In Portugal, access to surrogacy is regulated by Law no. 25/2016, of 22 August, which amended Law no. 32/2006, of 26 July. On 24 April 2018, the Constitutional Court declared to be unconstitutional the conditions under which the surrogate could withdraw her consent, which led to the extinction of any pending surrogate gestation contracts - Judgement no. 225/2018. In July 2019, the Portuguese Parliament approved a new Decree which was again declared unconstitutional on the same account - Judgment no. 465/2019 of the Constitutional Court, a fact that led the President of the Republic to return the Decree to the Portuguese Parliament, without promulgation. The President of the Republic returned the Decree to the Portuguese Parliament, where the debate is ongoing. The revised bill will have to be approved by the Portuguese Parliament and by the President of the Republic, subject to the Constitutional Court rulings. In practical terms, the legal framework regulating surrogacy in Portugal is not currently in force and cannot be applied.
2. Is surrogacy regulated in another way? (please specify) No
3. Has surrogacy been the subject of jurisprudence/court cases in your country? No. As the MAP techniques for the surrogacy cases authorized by the Portuguese National Council for Medically Assisted Procreation following the enactment of both the law and the regulatory decree had yet to be initiated, the effects of the Court rulings extended to all surrogacy contracts. Therefore, all contracts were cancelled and to this date no case has reached the judicial courts.
4. Is there a legal definition of the term “surrogacy”? (please specify) Yes. According to Article 8, paragraph 1 of Law No. 32/2006, “Surrogacy is defined as any situation in which a woman is prepared to carry out a pregnancy on behalf of third parties and to hand over the child after giving birth, thus renouncing the powers and duties of motherhood.”
9. Is it lawful to advertise surrogacy services? No. According to Article 39, paragraphs 5 and 6 of Law No. 32/2006, anyone who promotes surrogate, namely by public announcement, outside the cases provided for in paragraphs 2 to 6 of Article 8 stands to be punished by imprisonment for up to two years. This can admit an a contrario interpretation with regard to informative adverts of medical procedures, namely for surrogacy services carried out solely within the scope of article 8 and provided in public or private MAP centres expressly authorized for this purpose by the Ministry of Health.
10. Is it lawful to remunerate a facilitator/surrogacy agency No. Any person who, in any circumstance, derives economic benefit from the signing of surrogacy contracts or their promotion, by any means, shall be punished with imprisonment for up to 5 years (Article 8, paragraph 6 of Law No. 32/2006).
13. Who is recognised as the legal parent(s) of a child born following surrogacy? The intended parent(s) are recognised as the legal parent(s) of a child born following surrogacy (Article 8, paragraph 7 of Law No. 32/2006). An amendment to the Law establishing the terms under which consent might be revoked by the surrogate mother up to 20 days after the child was born, thus making the surrogate the legal parent, but with no genetic ties, was rejected in 2019 by the Constitutional Court before the Bill was enacted.
a. surrogate mother Yes
b. oocyte donor No
c. sperm donor No
d. intended mother No
e. intended father No
14. Do mechanisms exist to transfer parentage from the surrogate mother to the intended parent(s) (e.g. adoption procedures)? No
15. Is the existence of a genetic link required for establishing paternity/maternity? Yes, at least one of the intended parents (Article 8, paragraph 3 of Law No. 32/2006).
16. Are the other parties involved mentioned in the birth certificate or other official document connected to the birth? Besides the intended parent who has consented to the use of the technique in question, other parties may be mentioned in the birth certificate (Article 20), namely the person to whom she is married or linked by registered partnership. The respective parenthood shall be established at the time of registration.
a. surrogate mother Yes
b. oocyte donor No
c. sperm donor No
d. intended mother No
e. intended father No
17. Are foreign birth certificates in surrogacy cases registered in your country Competent authorities are not aware of any requests at this juncture.
6. Is access to surrogacy subject to specific criteria?
a. medical criteria (e.g. infertility of the intended parent(s)) Yes.
b. other criteria (please specify) Not commercial
1. Is surrogacy regulated by a specific law in your country? No.
There is no specific law in Republic of San Marino.
In case of infertile heterosexual couples are guaranteed links with the Italian reference centers to proceed with the medical procedure in order to proceed with the medically assisted fertilization. Therefore, the laws that underlie these subjects are Italian.
In San Marino as in many Italian hospitals, obstetrics deals with physiological pregnancies, while for those at risk is used to have the Rimini (Italy) hospital consulting for the guarantee offered by the neonatology service. However, it is easy to say that our hospital, like many in Italy, do not have a structure that deals with fertility treatment that would require a contribution offered by a molecular biology and cellular service, and cryopreservation. We have only a gynecology and obstetrics service that deals with the health of women and pregnancy, childbirth and the postnatal period but not of assisted reproductive technology.
Those who want to make this kind of surgery have to go to an Italian structure and pay all procedures of their own pockets. San Marino covers only the pharmaceutical expenses for two cycles of therapy linked to the induction of ovulation in the woman to perform the oocytes explantation. At the failure of the second attempt, if there are no frozen embryos to replant and the couple wanted to undergo another treatment, the couple pays also drug costs.
If pregnancy occurs, after a few attempts (it makes no difference whether the first or second) through assisted reproduction techniques it will be followed as a normal pregnancy and all health coverage that are entitled to residents or citizens of the state.
The health care system provides drug treatment for two cycles of ovarian stimulation and all medical examinations pre and post implant.
To sum up:
None of the questions about surrogacy is affirmative for Republic of San Marino.
All questions related to medically assisted fertilization with the possible donation of gametes are the same answers from Italy, although the Italian Republic has bound to specific laws.
Infertility is followed free of charge by the health care system in respect of two pharmacological cycles and the pre and post implantation. The gamete extraction techniques, fertilization, implantation and embryo storage at Italian specialized structures are the responsibility of the couple as well as any subsequent pharmacological cycles to the two provided free and the possible pregnancy of control remains in the responsibility of the health care system.
2. Is surrogacy regulated in another way? (please specify) No. In case of infertile heterosexual couples are guaranteed links with the Italian reference centers to proceed with the medical procedure in order to proceed with the medical assisted fertilization. Therefore the laws that underlie these subjects are Italian.
3. Has surrogacy been the subject of jurisprudence/court cases in your country? No
4. Is there a legal definition of the term “surrogacy”? (please specify) No
18. Is there:
a. any public discussion about the topic NA
b. planning of new regulation at national level NA
19. Please specify any additional relevant aspects which were not mentioned. NA
1. Is surrogacy regulated by a specific law in your country? No specific law, but specific provisions in more general laws
2. Is surrogacy regulated in another way? (please specify) Yes.
Surrogacy is not allowed in Spain, although it is recognized as an assisted reproductive technology in the Law 14/2006 on Assisted Human Reproduction Technologies (LTRHA) approved in 2006.
This Law declares null and void any contract agreement of surrogate motherhood conducted by a woman who refuses the filiation in favour of the contracting part or of a third party beneficiary, no matter it is with or without remuneration. It also lays down that filiation of children born by surrogate motherhood is determined by birth and that the fatherhood claim of the biological father remains possible.
Although the law in general seems to be very innovative and according to the critics, it is one of the most permissive regulations in the world, in relation to surrogate motherhood it takes a conservative character.
3. Has surrogacy been the subject of jurisprudence/court cases in your country? Yes
4. Is there a legal definition of the term “surrogacy”? (please specify) Yes. It is defined in the LTRHA as surrogate gestation: gestation, with or without price, in charge of a woman who refuses motherhood filiation in favour of the contracting part or of a third party beneficiary.
1. Is surrogacy regulated by a specific law in your country? Yes.
Pursuant to section 1 subsection (1), no. 7, of the Act on the Protection of Embryos [Embryonenschutzgesetz, ESchG], a person who undertakes to perform an artificial insemination on a woman who is prepared to give up her child permanently after birth to third parties (surrogate mother) or to transfer a human embryo to her is liable to imprisonment of up to three years or a fine. In such case neither the surrogate mother nor the person who wishes to permanently take care of the child is liable to punishment.
Pursuant to section 13c of the Adoption Placement Act [Adoptionsvermittlungsgesetz, AdVermiG], the procurement of surrogate mothers is prohibited by law in Germany.
2. Is surrogacy regulated in another way? (please specify) NA
3. Has surrogacy been the subject of jurisprudence/court cases in your country? Yes
Domestic surrogacy has not been subject of (civil law) jurisprudence due to strict prohibitions.
So far the courts have delivered only a few judgments dealing with the recognition of foreign judicial decisions issued following an international surrogacy arrangement.
In its leading decision of 10 December 2014, the Federal Court of Justice recognised a judgment from California establishing paternity of two German male nationals on the basis of a surrogacy agreement. The surrogate mother was not married, an anonymous egg donor was used and the child was, therefore, genetically related to only one of the intended fathers.
The Federal Court of Justice held that the recognition of a foreign judgment establishing a legal parent-child relationship between the child and the intended parents does not lead to a result that is obviously incompatible with significant principles of German law (ordre public) if (at least) one of the intended parents is genetically related to the child and the surrogacy mother is not. Whether the intended parents are of the same sex and live in a registered life partnership (or are married) or whether they are of a different sex and are married is not decisive. What is crucial for the possibility of recognition, according to the Federal Court of Justice, is whether or not the child was transferred by the surrogate mother into the care of the intended parents voluntarily – although this was not problematic in this particular case.
According to the Federal Court of Justice, binding the child to the legal maternity of the surrogate mother, as would follow from Section 1591 of the Civil Code (Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch – BGB), is not in the child’s best interest, because the surrogate mother does not want to take care of the child and because the foreign state will not acknowledge the legal maternity of the surrogate mother due to the foreign judgment.
The jurisprudence established by the Federal Court of Justice’s ruling has already been referred to by the Higher Regional Court of Düsseldorf in its decision of 7 April 2015 and several other German courts thereafter. The Federal Court of Justice itself subsequently further reaffirmed and specified its case law in two decisions of 5 September 2018 and 12 January 2022.
For instance, it held that the voluntary nature of the surrogate mother's cooperation is not called into question by the fact that the surrogate mother receives money in return or that there is a social disparity between her and the intended or appointed parents.
Recent first instance court decisions point to an even broader recognition of foreign surrogacy judgments, as the genetic link between one of the intended parents and the child has been declared of lesser relevance than the free and informed decision of the surrogate mother to accept the transfer of parenthood to the intended parents as well as the child’s best interests’ assessment.
4. Is there a legal definition of the term “surrogacy”? (please specify) Yes. See answer to question 1.
5. Is surrogacy prohibited in your country?
a. any form of surrogacy No
b. only specific forms of surrogacy (e.g. commercial) (please specify) Yes. According to Czech legislation, the human body and its parts must not be a source of financial gain.
9. Is it lawful to advertise surrogacy services? Yes. No specific prohibition, these procedures are offered, for example, on the sites of the MAR centers. However, the Czech Transplantation Act says: Advertising and advertising for the purpose of demand or offer of organs are prohibited
10. Is it lawful to remunerate a facilitator/surrogacy agency No. No agency officially exists yet. But at least one private centre seeks out prospective surrogate mothers and offers mediation to those interested in the procedure.
11. If surrogacy is forbidden, is the conduct of the following persons criminalised by the law? Surrogacy is not explicitly prohibited and is commonly performed. So far this has not happened, although there are reports of overstepping Czech law. However, where there is no prosecutor (so far), there is no judge. If a plaintiff were found, any of the persons mentioned could be criminalized if they were found to have violated the prohibition against financial gain from the human body or the prohibition against trafficking in human beings, especially women and children.
a. surrogate mother
b. intended parent(s)
c. gamete donor
d. facilitator
12. Subject to the applicable law, are you aware of the following unlawful practices in your country?
a. remuneration of the surrogate No
b. remuneration of the gamete donor No
c. advertising for surrogacy services No
d. remuneration of facilitators No
e. any other unlawful practices (please specify) Yes
For several years, the Czech Republic has been a country where Ukrainian surrogate mothers go to give birth and hand over their children to foreign clients, usually single men. However, giving birth and registering a child when both parents agree is not in itself a criminal offence. The procedure is cleverly planned by the actors into successive steps in different countries, where each partial step is legal. The Czech police have been monitoring these practices for a long time in cooperation with other countries. However, international surrogacy obviously cannot be solved without common international legislation.
6. Is access to surrogacy subject to specific criteria?
a. medical criteria (e.g. infertility of the intended parent(s)) No
b. other criteria (please specify) No. Surrogacy is not regulated by law. The Czech MAR Society has issued recommendations (exclusively medical indications, weighting with the applicants' own gametes, transfer of a single embryo, age of the surrogate mother under 49, surrogate mothers’ permanent residence in the Czech Republic, etc.), but the compliance is not enforceable.
11. If surrogacy is forbidden, is the conduct of the following persons criminalised by the law? NA
a. surrogate mother
b. intended parent(s)
c. gamete donor
d. facilitator
12. Subject to the applicable law, are you aware of the following unlawful practices in your country? No
a. remuneration of the surrogate
b. remuneration of the gamete donor
c. advertising for surrogacy services There are an increasing number of on-line adverts and companies advertising surrogacy packages in other countries, that are unlawful in the UK, but due to foreign servers they cannot be stopped from viewing in the UK.
d. remuneration of facilitators
e. any other unlawful practices (please specify)
1. Is surrogacy regulated by a specific law in your country? No.
In part. There is no overarching law regulating surrogacy and no surrogacy regulator, as such. Legislation does, however, make commercial surrogacy arrangements illegal and recognizes altruistic surrogacy.
The procedures for setting up an arrangement for a woman to act as a surrogate for another party are subject to the provisions of the surrogacy arrangements act 1985.
Surrogacy agreements between the surrogate mother and the commissioning persons are not enforceable by law. Provisions for transferring legal parenthood from the surrogate to the intended parents are covered by the Human Fertilisation & Embryology Act 1990 (as amended 2008).
2. Is surrogacy regulated in another way? (please specify) Yes. The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990 (as amended 2008) governs treatment involving the use of donated gametes or in vitro fertilisation. The Act would also apply to surrogacy arrangements where these procedures are involved, including an assessment of the welfare of any child that might be born as a result of the treatment and any existing children that might be affected by the birth.
3. Has surrogacy been the subject of jurisprudence/court cases in your country? Yes. In May 2016, a ruling in the Family Division of the High Court of Justice for England and Wales determined that single people can apply to be recognized as the legal parents of a child following a surrogacy arrangement. The law was subsequently changed in December 2018 to allow an application from an individual, subject to conditions, including that he/she is genetically related to the child.
4. Is there a legal definition of the term “surrogacy”? Yes. Two definitions (of Surrogate mother and Surrogacy Arrangement) in the Surrogacy Arrangements Act 1985 cover this:
England, Wales and Northern Ireland.
“Surrogate mother” means a woman who carries a child in pursuance of an arrangement.
An arrangement is a surrogacy arrangement if, where a woman to whom the arrangement relates to carry a child in pursuance of it, she would be a surrogate mother.
Scotland
“Surrogate mother” means a woman who carries a child in pursuance of an arrangement.
An arrangement is a surrogacy arrangement if, were a woman whom the arrangement relates to carry a child in pursuance of it, she would be a surrogate mother.
7. If surrogacy is allowed, is it lawful for the surrogate mother to receive: Reasonable expenses only. Under the provisions of the Human Fertilisation & Embryology Act 1990 (as amended 2008) a surrogate may receive reasonable expenses, however, “expenses” are not defined in the Act. No money or other benefits may be provided for any part of the surrogacy arrangement unless authorised by a Court.
a. refund of medical expenses N/A
b. refund of other expenses N/A
c. compensation for loss of income N/A
d. other compensation including non-pecuniary N/A
e. remuneration or comparable advantage N/A
13. Who is recognised as the legal parent(s) of a child born following surrogacy?
a. surrogate mother Yes, mother is the woman who gave birth to the child
b. oocyte donor No
c. sperm donor Yes, but if the mother is married, her husband will be considered the father by pater-est. A sperm donor (and intended father) may be able to recognize the paternity instead of the husband.
d. intended mother No
e. intended father No
14. Do mechanisms exist to transfer parentage from the surrogate mother to the intended parent(s) (e.g. adoption procedures)?
Not directly. See also answer to question number five.
If the intended father is also the genetic father (e.g. sperm donor), he will be recognized as legal father of the child unless the surrogate mother is married and there has not been a paternity case, where the husband of the surrogate mother declares that he is not the father of the child.
A spouse or cohabiting partner may apply for a stepchild adoption. However according to Danish regulation, the spouse or partner must have been living with the child for 2½ years before a stepchild adoption may be granted and an adoption decree shall not be issued if any of the parties required to consent to the adoption are to give or receive any kind whatsoever of payments or consideration, including compensation for loss of earnings.
If the intended father is not recognized as a legal father the only option to become legal parent of the child is an adoption, which must be in accordance with the 1993-Hague Convention on Intercountry Adoption, and therefore is difficult.
15. Is the existence of a genetic link required for establishing paternity/maternity? No.
In Denmark maternity is established by mater est, which means that the woman who gives birth to the child is the legal mother.
Paternity can be established in three different ways:
16. Are the other parties involved mentioned in the birth certificate or other official document connected to the birth?
a. surrogate mother Yes
b. oocyte donor No
c. sperm donor Yes and no
d. intended mother No
e. intended father Yes and no. If the intended father is also the genetic father, it is possible to recognize the paternity (cf. answer to question 13).
17. Are foreign birth certificates in surrogacy cases registered in your country No. According to Article 30 of the Children Act, a woman bearing a child who is the result of medically assisted procreation shall be considered the mother of the child (mater est). In Denmark a foreign birth certificate that indicates another person than the birth mother, as parent of the child will not be recognized. If the birth certificate also mentions a father, that paternity will be recognized if the man is also the genetic father of the child.
11. If surrogacy is forbidden, is the conduct of the following persons criminalised by the law?
a. surrogate mother No
b. intended parent(s)
c. gamete donor
d. facilitator
12. Subject to the applicable law, are you aware of the following unlawful practices in your country?
a. remuneration of the surrogate No
b. remuneration of the gamete donor No
c. advertising for surrogacy services No
d. remuneration of facilitators No
e. any other unlawful practices (please specify) No
5. Is surrogacy prohibited in your country?
a. any form of surrogacy Yes
b. only specific forms of surrogacy (e.g. commercial) (please specify) No.
According to § 13 in the Danish Act on Assisted Reproduction, assisted reproduction cannot be established in relation to an agreement between the woman, who seeks to be pregnant, and someone else, who wishes for her to give birth to a child for them (surrogacy).
11. If surrogacy is forbidden, is the conduct of the following persons criminalised by the law? If they violate article 151b and/or c of the penal code, which prohibits (commercial) mediation with the intend of surrogacy and making public the desire to be a surrogate mother or seeking one. The gamete donor is not included in the prohibition. In the bill that has been sent to Parliament is proposed to decriminalize making public the desire to be a surrogate mother or seeking one.
a. surrogate mother Yes
b. intended parent(s) Yes
c. gamete donor Yes
d. facilitator Yes
12. Subject to the applicable law, are you aware of the following unlawful practices in your country?
a. remuneration of the surrogate No
b. remuneration of the gamete donor No
c. advertising for surrogacy services No
d. remuneration of facilitators No
e. any other unlawful practices (please specify) No
9. Is it lawful to advertise surrogacy services? No
10. Is it lawful to remunerate a facilitator/surrogacy agency No