Surrogacy - Search
Ukraine -
Applicable law
11. If surrogacy is forbidden, is the conduct of the following persons criminalised by the law? NA
a. surrogate mother
b. intended parent(s)
c. gamete donor
d. facilitator
12. Subject to the applicable law, are you aware of the following unlawful practices in your country? No
a. remuneration of the surrogate
b. remuneration of the gamete donor
c. advertising for surrogacy services
d. remuneration of facilitators
e. any other unlawful practices (please specify)
Ukraine -
Legal aspects
5. Is surrogacy prohibited in your country?
a. any form of surrogacy No
b. only specific forms of surrogacy (e.g. commercial) (please specify) Commercial
Ukraine -
Oocyte donation
8. Can the surrogate also be the oocyte donor? Yes
Switzerland -
Specific criteria
6. Is access to surrogacy subject to specific criteria? NA
a. medical criteria (e.g. infertility of the intended parent(s))
b. other criteria (please specify)
Switzerland -
Oocyte donation
8. Can the surrogate also be the oocyte donor? NA
Andorra -
Parentage
13. Who is recognised as the legal parent(s) of a child born following surrogacy? The Law of Civil Registry of July 11, 1996, Article 62 provides for the need to prove maternity and so this would be the surrogate mother.
a. surrogate mother
b. oocyte donor
c. sperm donor
d. intended mother
e. intended father
14. Do mechanisms exist to transfer parentage from the surrogate mother to the intended parent(s) (e.g. adoption procedures)? Adoption could be possible.
15. Is the existence of a genetic link required for establishing paternity/maternity? N/A
16. Are the other parties involved mentioned in the birth certificate or other official document connected to the birth? N/A
a. surrogate mother
b. oocyte donor
c. sperm donor
d. intended mother
e. intended father
17. Are foreign birth certificates in surrogacy cases registered in your country N/A
Belgium -
Parentage
13. Who is recognised as the legal parent(s) of a child born following surrogacy?
a. surrogate mother
Yes, under Belgian law, the woman who gives birth is the legal parent, even if this is not the genetic mother of the child.
b. oocyte donor
No, in the context of medically assisted procreation, no action concerning filiation or its economic effects is open to gamete donors.
c. sperm donor
No, idem, cf. B
d. intended mother
No, she can become a legal mother only through adoption
e. intended father
Yes conditional. Under the Civil Code, if the mother is not married, in casu the surrogate mother, the intended father may introduce a demand of paternity recognition
14. Do mechanisms exist to transfer parentage from the surrogate mother to the intended parent(s) (e.g. adoption procedures)? Yes. The breaking of parentage can only occur with the adoption by the intended mother and this, following the waiving of the rights by the surrogate mother. But if the surrogate mother is married, the husband of the latter is considered the legal father and must therefore contest his paternity. Once the paternity is contested, the intended father can recognize the child.
15. Is the existence of a genetic link required for establishing paternity/maternity? No.
The legal mother is the woman who gives birth even if she is not the genetic mother.
If the surrogate mother is not married, the intended father can recognize the child at birth.
16. Are the other parties involved mentioned in the birth certificate or other official document connected to the birth?
a. surrogate mother Yes, she is the legal mother
b. oocyte donor No
c. sperm donor No
d. intended mother No
e. intended father Yes, if he recognizes the child at birth
17. Are foreign birth certificates in surrogacy cases registered in your country Yes. Despite the illegality of a surrogacy contract that results in a birth certificate drawn up abroad, parentage can be recognized in the best interests of the child.
Belgium -
Financial aspects
7. If surrogacy is allowed, is it lawful for the surrogate mother to receive:
a. refund of medical expenses Yes
b. refund of other expenses No
c. compensation for loss of income No
d. other compensation including non-pecuniary No
e. remuneration or comparable advantage No
- refund of medical expenses
- refund of other expenses
- compensation for loss of income
- other compensation including non-pecuniary
- remuneration or comparable advantage
Belgium -
Oocyte donation
8. Can the surrogate also be the oocyte donor? No general prohibition but it depends on the conditions set by the fertilization centers
Austria -
Oocyte donation
8. Can the surrogate also be the oocyte donor? N/A
Denmark -
Parentage
13. Who is recognised as the legal parent(s) of a child born following surrogacy?
a. surrogate mother Yes, mother is the woman who gave birth to the child
b. oocyte donor No
c. sperm donor Yes, but if the mother is married, her husband will be considered the father by pater-est. A sperm donor (and intended father) may be able to recognize the paternity instead of the husband.
d. intended mother No
e. intended father No
14. Do mechanisms exist to transfer parentage from the surrogate mother to the intended parent(s) (e.g. adoption procedures)?
Not directly. See also answer to question number five.
If the intended father is also the genetic father (e.g. sperm donor), he will be recognized as legal father of the child unless the surrogate mother is married and there has not been a paternity case, where the husband of the surrogate mother declares that he is not the father of the child.
A spouse or cohabiting partner may apply for a stepchild adoption. However according to Danish regulation, the spouse or partner must have been living with the child for 2½ years before a stepchild adoption may be granted and an adoption decree shall not be issued if any of the parties required to consent to the adoption are to give or receive any kind whatsoever of payments or consideration, including compensation for loss of earnings.
If the intended father is not recognized as a legal father the only option to become legal parent of the child is an adoption, which must be in accordance with the 1993-Hague Convention on Intercountry Adoption, and therefore is difficult.
15. Is the existence of a genetic link required for establishing paternity/maternity? No.
In Denmark maternity is established by mater est, which means that the woman who gives birth to the child is the legal mother.
Paternity can be established in three different ways:
- By presumption (pater est (the husband to a mother is presumed to be the father of a child) or a man and the mother jointly sign a Care and Responsibility Declaration, paternity will be recognized)
- By declaration or judgment when the man is the genetic father.
- When a man has consented to his spouse or partner undergoing assisted fertilization, paternity can be established. This also applies to co-maternity, when a woman has consented to her spouse or partner undergoing assisted fertilization.
16. Are the other parties involved mentioned in the birth certificate or other official document connected to the birth?
a. surrogate mother Yes
b. oocyte donor No
c. sperm donor Yes and no
d. intended mother No
e. intended father Yes and no. If the intended father is also the genetic father, it is possible to recognize the paternity (cf. answer to question 13).
17. Are foreign birth certificates in surrogacy cases registered in your country No. According to Article 30 of the Children Act, a woman bearing a child who is the result of medically assisted procreation shall be considered the mother of the child (mater est). In Denmark a foreign birth certificate that indicates another person than the birth mother, as parent of the child will not be recognized. If the birth certificate also mentions a father, that paternity will be recognized if the man is also the genetic father of the child.
Finland -
Applicable law
11. If surrogacy is forbidden, is the conduct of the following persons criminalised by the law?
a. surrogate mother No, unless she is considered guilty of unlawful arrangement of adoption (Chapter 25, Section 3c of the Criminal Code, see excerpt below).
b. intended parent(s) No, unless they have paid or promised to pay remuneration for the gametes or embryos to be used in violation of Section 21 of the Act of Assisted Fertility Treatments, or they are considered guilty of unlawful obtaining of consent to adoption or unlawful arrangement of adoption (Chapter 25, Sections 3b and 3c of the Criminal Code, see excerpts below).
c. gamete donor. No, unless he or she is considered guilty of unlawful obtaining of consent to adoption or unlawful arrangement of adoption (Chapter 25, Sections 3b and 3c of the Criminal Code, see excerpts below
d. facilitator. According to Section 35 of the Act on Assisted Fertility Treatments (1237/2006), a person who intentionally provides assisted fertility treatment although there is reason to presume that the child will be up for adoption, shall be sentenced to a fine for assisted fertility treatment offence. The facilitator is also more likely to be considered to violate the ban on remuneration (Section 35, paragraph 2 of the Act on Assisted Fertility Treatments) and to be considered guilty of unlawful obtaining of consent to adoption and unlawful arrangement of adoption (Chapter 25, Sections 3b and 3c of the Criminal Code).
12. Subject to the applicable law, are you aware of the following unlawful practices in your country? No
a. remuneration of the surrogate
b. remuneration of the gamete donor
c. advertising for surrogacy services
d. remuneration of facilitators
e. any other unlawful practices (please specify)
Finland -
Legal aspects
5. Is surrogacy prohibited in your country?
a. any form of surrogacy Yes.
Surrogacy arrangements that involve performing of assisted fertility treatments are prohibited by law in Finland. As all surrogacy arrangements facilitated by fertility treatments are prohibited, it is not in these cases relevant whether the arrangement is commercial or not.
If the surrogate mother becomes pregnant for the purposes of surrogacy without assistance from the fertility clinics (e.g. by sexual intercourse), surrogacy arrangements are not prohibited. However, there is no information whether such arrangements take place in practice.
Although only surrogacy arrangements performed by assisted fertilization are prohibited by the Act on Assisted Fertility Treatments, Section 5 of the Act (as amended by the Act 22/2012) prohibits granting adoption “if any remuneration for the adoption has been given or promised or if someone other than the prospective adopter has, with a view to the adoption being granted, made or undertaken to make remunerative payments for the maintenance of the child. Any contract or commitment concerning the payment of remuneration referred to in subsection 1 shall be null and void"
b. only specific forms of surrogacy (e.g. commercial) (please specify) YES, please see answer to question 5 a above
Denmark -
Applicable law
11. If surrogacy is forbidden, is the conduct of the following persons criminalised by the law?
a. surrogate mother No
b. intended parent(s)
c. gamete donor
d. facilitator
12. Subject to the applicable law, are you aware of the following unlawful practices in your country?
a. remuneration of the surrogate No
b. remuneration of the gamete donor No
c. advertising for surrogacy services No
d. remuneration of facilitators No
e. any other unlawful practices (please specify) No
Finland -
Oocyte donation
8. Can the surrogate also be the oocyte donor? Not applicable, as medically assisted surrogacy is prohibited.
Norvège -
Legal regulation
1. Is surrogacy regulated by a specific law in your country? No specific law, but specific provisions in more general laws
2. Is surrogacy regulated in another way? (please specify) Yes.
Access to medically assisted procreation (MAP) services (in Norway) is regulated in the Act relating to the application of biotechnology in human medicine, etc. [The Biotechnology Act]. According to Section 2-15 an embryo may only be implanted in the womb of the woman who is to be the child's mother. Furthermore, embryo donation is not allowed. Single women do not have access to oocyte donation, and couples may use either oocyte or sperm donation. (An exception has been made for same-sex couples so that an oocyte may be collected from one of the women and the embryo implanted into the womb of the other woman in the couple.)
This implies that surrogacy is not allowed according to the Biotechnology Act. Sanctions for breach of prohibitions in the Biotechnology Act apply to medical personnel etc, but not for the intending parents or the surrogate mother.
Furthermore, an agreement to give birth to a child for another woman is not binding according to the Act relating to Children and Parents [The Children Act] section 2.
To sum up: Some forms of surrogacy are expressly prohibited by law, while others are not expressly prohibited, notwithstanding - the law stipulates that agreements to give birth to a child for another woman is not binding, and consequently surrogacy arrangements cannot be enforced.
3. Has surrogacy been the subject of jurisprudence/court cases in your country? No
4. Is there a legal definition of the term “surrogacy”? (please specify) No
Pays-Bas -
Applicable law
11. If surrogacy is forbidden, is the conduct of the following persons criminalised by the law? If they violate article 151b and/or c of the penal code, which prohibits (commercial) mediation with the intend of surrogacy and making public the desire to be a surrogate mother or seeking one. The gamete donor is not included in the prohibition. In the bill that has been sent to Parliament is proposed to decriminalize making public the desire to be a surrogate mother or seeking one.
a. surrogate mother Yes
b. intended parent(s) Yes
c. gamete donor Yes
d. facilitator Yes
12. Subject to the applicable law, are you aware of the following unlawful practices in your country?
a. remuneration of the surrogate No
b. remuneration of the gamete donor No
c. advertising for surrogacy services No
d. remuneration of facilitators No
e. any other unlawful practices (please specify) No
Pays-Bas -
Services
9. Is it lawful to advertise surrogacy services? No
10. Is it lawful to remunerate a facilitator/surrogacy agency No
Austria -
Financial aspects
7. If surrogacy is allowed, is it lawful for the surrogate mother to receive:
a. refund of medical expenses N/A
b. refund of other expenses N/A
c. compensation for loss of income N/A
d. other compensation including non-pecuniary N/A
e. remuneration or comparable advantage N/A
- refund of medical expenses
- refund of other expenses
- compensation for loss of income
- other compensation including non-pecuniary
- remuneration or comparable advantage
Cyprus -
Current debate and specific situations
18. Is there:
a. any public discussion about the topic Yes
b. planning of new regulation at national level Yes
19. Please specify any additional relevant aspects which were not mentioned. An amendment to the recent Law is prepared by the Board of Medically Assisted Reproduction which will be presented for approval to the Council of Ministers and the House of Representatives of the Republic of Cyprus in 2016.
Cyprus -
Applicable law
11. If surrogacy is forbidden, is the conduct of the following persons criminalised by the law? N/A
a. surrogate mother
b. intended parent(s)
c. gamete donor
d. facilitator
12. Subject to the applicable law, are you aware of the following unlawful practices in your country? No. Please note that since the Law is new, there was not enough time to observe any irregularities in the implementation of the law.
Cyprus -
Services
9. Is it lawful to advertise surrogacy services? No
10. Is it lawful to remunerate a facilitator/surrogacy agency No
Hungary -
Parentage
13. Who is recognised as the legal parent(s) of a child born following surrogacy? Not applicable. According to § 4:115 (1) of the Civil Code (Act V of 2013) the mother of the child is the woman who has delivered the child. According to section (4) thereof, if the child was born in an assisted reproduction event, the oocyte donor cannot legally apply for the mother status.
a. surrogate mother
b. oocyte donor
c. sperm donor
d. intended mother
e. intended father
14. Do mechanisms exist to transfer parentage from the surrogate mother to the intended parent(s) (e.g. adoption procedures)?
Yes. A birth after surrogacy can happen abroad, in a country where it is lawful. Depending on the specification of the legal mother in the original birth certificate, an adoption procedure may follow in Hungary.
According to the Civil Code, the legal mother cannot be forced to agree to the intended adoption, and the legal decision on the adoption can be withdrawn if a commercial motivation of the adoption comes to light.
15. Is the existence of a genetic link required for establishing paternity/maternity? No. In the case of assisted reproduction the genetic link cannot be complained by the parents, according to the Civil Code, § 4:108 a) for the father, and § 4:115 (4) for the mother.
16. Are the other parties involved mentioned in the birth certificate or other official document connected to the birth? NA
a. surrogate mother
b. oocyte donor
c. sperm donor
d. intended mother
e. intended father
17. Are foreign birth certificates in surrogacy cases registered in your country
Hungary -
Applicable law
11. If surrogacy is forbidden, is the conduct of the following persons criminalised by the law? For A., B. and D. § 175 on prohibited use of human body of the Criminal Code (Act C of 2012) is relevant. In addition, for a. to d., § 213 on violation of family status are also valid.
a. surrogate mother Yes
b. intended parent(s) Yes
c. gamete donor NA
d. facilitator Yes
12. Subject to the applicable law, are you aware of the following unlawful practices in your country?
a. remuneration of the surrogate No
b. remuneration of the gamete donor No
c. advertising for surrogacy services No
d. remuneration of facilitators No
e. any other unlawful practices (please specify) No
Hungary -
Current debate and specific situations
18. Is there:
a. any public discussion about the topic. It used to be, see no. 3
b. planning of new regulation at national level No
19. Please specify any additional relevant aspects which were not mentioned. NA
Hungary -
Services
9. Is it lawful to advertise surrogacy services? No
10. Is it lawful to remunerate a facilitator/surrogacy agency No
Hungary -
Oocyte donation
8. Can the surrogate also be the oocyte donor? NA
Ireland -
Parentage
13. Who is recognised as the legal parent(s) of a child born following surrogacy?
a. surrogate mother Yes, birth mother is the legal mother - see note on the MR and Anor – v- An tArd Chlaraitheoir & Ors [2014] case
If the surrogate mother is married, then under the Status of Children Act 1987, the surrogate mother's husband is presumed by law to be the father of the child. The husband will also, along with the surrogate mother, be the joint guardian of the child.
If the commissioning father is the genetic father of the child, it is possible to overcome the presumption of paternity in favour of the surrogate mother's husband, so as to allow the commissioning father to be recognised as the legal parent of the child. The commissioning father will need to provide evidence of paternity in support of this application.
If the surrogate mother is not married, and the commissioning father is the genetic father of the child, then the Irish authorities may recognise his paternity of the child on receipt of reliable DNA evidence.
As provided for under the Children and Family Relationships Act 2015, gamete/embryo donors are not regarded to be the parent(s) of donor-conceived children.
b. oocyte donor No
c. sperm donor No
d. intended mother No
e. intended father Yes
14. Do mechanisms exist to transfer parentage from the surrogate mother to the intended parent(s) (e.g. adoption procedures)?
See previous note. In addition, it is proposed that the legislation on assisted human reproduction will establish a court-based mechanism for transfer of parentage from the surrogate (and her husband) to the intending parents. At least one of the intending parents will have to be genetically related to the child.
15. Is the existence of a genetic link required for establishing paternity/maternity? As previously stated, the birth mother is automatically regarded as the legal mother under the Irish Constitution. See notes under Q 13 re paternity and Q 14 re transfer of parentage in cases of surrogacy.
16. Are the other parties involved mentioned in the birth certificate or other official document connected to the birth?
a. surrogate mother Yes, birth mother is always the legal mother
b. oocyte donor No
c. sperm donor No
d. intended mother No
e. intended father Yes, so long as he is the genetic father
The proposed legislation will establish a national surrogacy register where the contact details of any person involved in a surrogacy, e.g. sperm or oocyte donor, intending parent and surrogate, will be recorded. Once a person born to a surrogate reaches the age of 18, he or she may access the full information contained in the national surrogacy register, unless there are exceptional circumstances.
17. Are foreign birth certificates in surrogacy cases registered in your country No
Italy -
Legal regulation
1. Is surrogacy regulated by a specific law in your country? No specific law, but specific provisions in more general laws
Article 12 (general prohibitions and penalties), section 6 of Law n°40/2004 on assisted reproduction techniques bans surrogacy (“Whoever, in any form, produces, arranges or advertises the sale of gametes or embryos or surrogate motherhood is punished with imprisonment from three months to two years and a fine ranging from 600,000 to one million euros”).
Pursuant to the Italian Constitution, the combined provisions of Articles 2, 30 and 31 preclude its legitimacy, thereby stating the irreplaceability of both personal and economic duties related to parental responsibility incumbent upon genetic parents, alongside the child’s right to be raised by the latter and to be entitled to a substitute family only when the parents’ incapacity is objectively certified.
In addition, Article 5 of the Italian Civil Code prohibits any actions on one’s own body when causing a permanent damage to physical integrity or when violating Law, public order or decency.
2. Is surrogacy regulated in another way? (please specify) No
3. Has surrogacy been the subject of jurisprudence/court cases in your country? Yes, judgments by Italy’s Supreme Court (n. 24001/2014) and the Constitutional Court (n.162/2014) confirmed the prohibition of Law no.40/2004. Particularly, in judgment n° 162/2004, the Court ruled that “the technique under examination must be strictly restricted to the donation of gametes and kept separate from other different methods, such as “surrogate pregnancies”, which are expressly prohibited under Article 12(6) of Law no. 40 of 2004, the prohibition of which has not been challenged and is not affected in any way and at any point by this ruling, and will hence continue to be valid and effective”.
4. Is there a legal definition of the term “surrogacy”? (please specify) No
Ireland -
Financial aspects
7. If surrogacy is allowed, is it lawful for the surrogate mother to receive: It is proposed that the reimbursement of reasonable, receptable expenses will be permitted which might include: any pre-natal or post-natal medical expenses associated with the pregnancy or birth; expenses associated with the surrogate mother receiving counselling, independent legal advice; maternity clothing, paid housework or childcare undertaken by persons other than the surrogate mother; the expense of reimbursing the surrogate mother for any loss of income but only for a) a period of not more than 6 months during the which the birth happened or was expected to happen; b) any other period during the pregnancy or thereafter, not exceeding 12 months in total, when the surrogate mother was unable to work on medical grounds related to the pregnancy or birth.
a. refund of medical expenses
b. refund of other expenses
c. compensation for loss of income
d. other compensation including non-pecuniary
e. remuneration or comparable advantage
- refund of medical expenses
- refund of other expenses
- compensation for loss of income
- other compensation including non-pecuniary
- remuneration or comparable advantage
Montenegro -
Oocyte donation
8. Can the surrogate also be the oocyte donor? Yes. Oocyte donation is regulated by the same law as surrogacy (Law on Infertility Treatment with Assisted Reproductive Technologies). Instead of surrogacy which is prohibited, oocyte donation is allowed, and the criteria are specified.
Pays-Bas -
Legal regulation
1. Is surrogacy regulated by a specific law in your country? No. Surrogacy is currently unregulated, apart from a criminal prohibition of (commercial) mediation in surrogacy. Currently, there is a legal framework in preparation regulating parentage following surrogacy in the Netherlands as well as the acceptance of parentage following international surrogacy. This legislative proposal has been sent to parliament for adoption on the 4th of July of 2023.
2. Is surrogacy regulated in another way? (please specify) No. The Dutch civil code has no mention of surrogacy. Accordingly, the regular provisions in the field of parentage, parental responsibility and child protection apply in these cases. After birth, the surrogate mother is the legal mother of the child. The intended parents can only become the legal parents through recognition and adoption upon request at the Dutch court. Surrogacy arrangements can be made but will not be enforceable when it contains arrangements that conflict with Dutch legislation, such as arrangements to transfer the legal parentage.
3. Has surrogacy been the subject of jurisprudence/court cases in your country?
Yes, in specific international surrogacy cases:
In recent years there have been court rulings that allowed for the recognition of foreign denial of maternity (not recognized in Dutch Civil Law, Court The Hague June 27th 2019 and Court Amsterdam February 12th 2020, ECLI:NL:RBAMS:2020:871). And also the recognition of a foreign birth certificate with two intending parents of opposite-sex (Court Amsterdam, August 29, 2023, ECLI:NL:RBDHA:2023:13397) and two fathers on it (Court Amsterdam, February 12th, 2020, ECLI:NL:RBAMS:2020:1628). In all cases the court only recognized the foreign birth-certificates under the condition that there had been due process in the originating country, and information on the origin of the child, under which the genetic relations of the child, were clear. In the case of two fathers on the birth certificate the court also considered that the certificate had already been recognized in another EU country (Spain).
4. Is there a legal definition of the term “surrogacy”? (please specify) No
Norvège -
Parentage
13. Who is recognised as the legal parent(s) of a child born following surrogacy? There are no specific provisions in the Children Act or in the Adoption Act with regard to legal parentage for children born by a surrogate mother. The woman who has given birth to the child shall be regarded as the mother. Maternity can only be transferred by means of adoption. Paternity may be established according to the provisions in the Children Act. If paternity is not established pursuant to the pater est rule, a man may acknowledge paternity. Paternity shall be acknowledged in writing either in the notification of birth or by appearing in person before i.a. the National Register, the Norwegian Labour and Welfare Service (NAV), an embassy/consulate, a midwife/doctor at an pregnancy check-up (in Norway). Acknowledgement is valid if the mother has accepted it in writing, or when the acknowledgement is given by the person whom the mother has named as the father. Paternity may also be established/changed by a court order, or changed according to a decision by the authorities. In individual cases, paternity established abroad may be recognized in Norway (strict conditions)
a. surrogate mother Yes
b. oocyte donor No
c. sperm donor No
d. intended mother No
e. intended father
14. Do mechanisms exist to transfer parentage from the surrogate mother to the intended parent(s) (e.g. adoption procedures)? Yes. General rules for adoption will apply if the parents of a child wish to transfer parentage.
15. Is the existence of a genetic link required for establishing paternity/maternity? No
16. Are the other parties involved mentioned in the birth certificate or other official document connected to the birth?
Not applicable. Only the parents of the child are mentioned in the birth certificate.
a. surrogate mother
b. oocyte donor
c. sperm donor
d. intended mother
e. intended father
17. Are foreign birth certificates in surrogacy cases registered in your country Only when the child is born on the territory of the State.
Pays-Bas -
Legal aspects
5. Is surrogacy prohibited in your country?
a. any form of surrogacy No
b. only specific forms of surrogacy (e.g. commercial) (please specify) Yes. Commercial forms of surrogacy are explicitly forbidden (Article 8, paragraph 2 of Law No. 32/2006). Gratuitous surrogacy is pendant on a new legislative revision.
Norvège -
Specific criteria
6. Is access to surrogacy subject to specific criteria?
a. medical criteria (e.g. infertility of the intended parent(s)) NA
b. other criteria (please specify) NA
Norvège -
Oocyte donation
8. Can the surrogate also be the oocyte donor? NA
Portugal -
Legal regulation
1. Is surrogacy regulated by a specific law in your country? Yes. In Portugal, access to surrogacy is regulated by Law no. 25/2016, of 22 August, which amended Law no. 32/2006, of 26 July. On 24 April 2018, the Constitutional Court declared to be unconstitutional the conditions under which the surrogate could withdraw her consent, which led to the extinction of any pending surrogate gestation contracts - Judgement no. 225/2018. In July 2019, the Portuguese Parliament approved a new Decree which was again declared unconstitutional on the same account - Judgment no. 465/2019 of the Constitutional Court, a fact that led the President of the Republic to return the Decree to the Portuguese Parliament, without promulgation. The President of the Republic returned the Decree to the Portuguese Parliament, where the debate is ongoing. The revised bill will have to be approved by the Portuguese Parliament and by the President of the Republic, subject to the Constitutional Court rulings. In practical terms, the legal framework regulating surrogacy in Portugal is not currently in force and cannot be applied.
2. Is surrogacy regulated in another way? (please specify) No
3. Has surrogacy been the subject of jurisprudence/court cases in your country? No. As the MAP techniques for the surrogacy cases authorized by the Portuguese National Council for Medically Assisted Procreation following the enactment of both the law and the regulatory decree had yet to be initiated, the effects of the Court rulings extended to all surrogacy contracts. Therefore, all contracts were cancelled and to this date no case has reached the judicial courts.
4. Is there a legal definition of the term “surrogacy”? (please specify) Yes. According to Article 8, paragraph 1 of Law No. 32/2006, “Surrogacy is defined as any situation in which a woman is prepared to carry out a pregnancy on behalf of third parties and to hand over the child after giving birth, thus renouncing the powers and duties of motherhood.”
Portugal -
Parentage
13. Who is recognised as the legal parent(s) of a child born following surrogacy? The intended parent(s) are recognised as the legal parent(s) of a child born following surrogacy (Article 8, paragraph 7 of Law No. 32/2006). An amendment to the Law establishing the terms under which consent might be revoked by the surrogate mother up to 20 days after the child was born, thus making the surrogate the legal parent, but with no genetic ties, was rejected in 2019 by the Constitutional Court before the Bill was enacted.
a. surrogate mother Yes
b. oocyte donor No
c. sperm donor No
d. intended mother No
e. intended father No
14. Do mechanisms exist to transfer parentage from the surrogate mother to the intended parent(s) (e.g. adoption procedures)? No
15. Is the existence of a genetic link required for establishing paternity/maternity? Yes, at least one of the intended parents (Article 8, paragraph 3 of Law No. 32/2006).
16. Are the other parties involved mentioned in the birth certificate or other official document connected to the birth? Besides the intended parent who has consented to the use of the technique in question, other parties may be mentioned in the birth certificate (Article 20), namely the person to whom she is married or linked by registered partnership. The respective parenthood shall be established at the time of registration.
a. surrogate mother Yes
b. oocyte donor No
c. sperm donor No
d. intended mother No
e. intended father No
17. Are foreign birth certificates in surrogacy cases registered in your country Competent authorities are not aware of any requests at this juncture.
Portugal -
Services
9. Is it lawful to advertise surrogacy services? No. According to Article 39, paragraphs 5 and 6 of Law No. 32/2006, anyone who promotes surrogate, namely by public announcement, outside the cases provided for in paragraphs 2 to 6 of Article 8 stands to be punished by imprisonment for up to two years. This can admit an a contrario interpretation with regard to informative adverts of medical procedures, namely for surrogacy services carried out solely within the scope of article 8 and provided in public or private MAP centres expressly authorized for this purpose by the Ministry of Health.
10. Is it lawful to remunerate a facilitator/surrogacy agency No. Any person who, in any circumstance, derives economic benefit from the signing of surrogacy contracts or their promotion, by any means, shall be punished with imprisonment for up to 5 years (Article 8, paragraph 6 of Law No. 32/2006).
San Marino -
Legal regulation
1. Is surrogacy regulated by a specific law in your country? No.
There is no specific law in Republic of San Marino.
In case of infertile heterosexual couples are guaranteed links with the Italian reference centers to proceed with the medical procedure in order to proceed with the medically assisted fertilization. Therefore, the laws that underlie these subjects are Italian.
In San Marino as in many Italian hospitals, obstetrics deals with physiological pregnancies, while for those at risk is used to have the Rimini (Italy) hospital consulting for the guarantee offered by the neonatology service. However, it is easy to say that our hospital, like many in Italy, do not have a structure that deals with fertility treatment that would require a contribution offered by a molecular biology and cellular service, and cryopreservation. We have only a gynecology and obstetrics service that deals with the health of women and pregnancy, childbirth and the postnatal period but not of assisted reproductive technology.
Those who want to make this kind of surgery have to go to an Italian structure and pay all procedures of their own pockets. San Marino covers only the pharmaceutical expenses for two cycles of therapy linked to the induction of ovulation in the woman to perform the oocytes explantation. At the failure of the second attempt, if there are no frozen embryos to replant and the couple wanted to undergo another treatment, the couple pays also drug costs.
If pregnancy occurs, after a few attempts (it makes no difference whether the first or second) through assisted reproduction techniques it will be followed as a normal pregnancy and all health coverage that are entitled to residents or citizens of the state.
The health care system provides drug treatment for two cycles of ovarian stimulation and all medical examinations pre and post implant.
To sum up:
None of the questions about surrogacy is affirmative for Republic of San Marino.
All questions related to medically assisted fertilization with the possible donation of gametes are the same answers from Italy, although the Italian Republic has bound to specific laws.
Infertility is followed free of charge by the health care system in respect of two pharmacological cycles and the pre and post implantation. The gamete extraction techniques, fertilization, implantation and embryo storage at Italian specialized structures are the responsibility of the couple as well as any subsequent pharmacological cycles to the two provided free and the possible pregnancy of control remains in the responsibility of the health care system.
2. Is surrogacy regulated in another way? (please specify) No. In case of infertile heterosexual couples are guaranteed links with the Italian reference centers to proceed with the medical procedure in order to proceed with the medical assisted fertilization. Therefore the laws that underlie these subjects are Italian.
3. Has surrogacy been the subject of jurisprudence/court cases in your country? No
4. Is there a legal definition of the term “surrogacy”? (please specify) No
Romania -
Legal regulation
1. Is surrogacy regulated by a specific law in your country? No
2. Is surrogacy regulated in another way? (please specify) No. There are some notarial agreements between couples and surrogate mother before procedure and followed by adoption after birth.
3. Has surrogacy been the subject of jurisprudence/court cases in your country? No
4. Is there a legal definition of the term “surrogacy”? (please specify) Not yet, but under discussion in the Parliament.
Türkiye -
Parentage
13. Who is recognised as the legal parent(s) of a child born following surrogacy? As surrogacy is not recognised by law in Türkiye, there is not any answer to this question.
a. surrogate mother
b. oocyte donor
c. sperm donor
d. intended mother
e. intended father
14. Do mechanisms exist to transfer parentage from the surrogate mother to the intended parent(s) (e.g. adoption procedures)?No
15. Is the existence of a genetic link required for establishing paternity/maternity? Yes. This can be done in case of any forensic medicine queries, not for surrogacy context which is unlawful in Türkiye
16. Are the other parties involved mentioned in the birth certificate or other official document connected to the birth? No
a. surrogate mother
b. oocyte donor
c. sperm donor
d. intended mother
e. intended father
17. Are foreign birth certificates in surrogacy cases registered in your country No
Sweden -
Oocyte donation
8. Can the surrogate also be the oocyte donor? NA
Switzerland -
Applicable law
11. If surrogacy is forbidden, is the conduct of the following persons criminalised by the law?
a. surrogate mother No
b. intended parent(s) No
c. gamete donor No
d. facilitator Yes
12. Subject to the applicable law, are you aware of the following unlawful practices in your country?
a. remuneration of the surrogate No
b. remuneration of the gamete donor No
c. advertising for surrogacy services No
d. remuneration of facilitators No
e. any other unlawful practices (please specify) No
United Kingdom -
Legal regulation
1. Is surrogacy regulated by a specific law in your country? No.
In part. There is no overarching law regulating surrogacy and no surrogacy regulator, as such. Legislation does, however, make commercial surrogacy arrangements illegal and recognizes altruistic surrogacy.
The procedures for setting up an arrangement for a woman to act as a surrogate for another party are subject to the provisions of the surrogacy arrangements act 1985.
Surrogacy agreements between the surrogate mother and the commissioning persons are not enforceable by law. Provisions for transferring legal parenthood from the surrogate to the intended parents are covered by the Human Fertilisation & Embryology Act 1990 (as amended 2008).
2. Is surrogacy regulated in another way? (please specify) Yes. The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990 (as amended 2008) governs treatment involving the use of donated gametes or in vitro fertilisation. The Act would also apply to surrogacy arrangements where these procedures are involved, including an assessment of the welfare of any child that might be born as a result of the treatment and any existing children that might be affected by the birth.
3. Has surrogacy been the subject of jurisprudence/court cases in your country? Yes. In May 2016, a ruling in the Family Division of the High Court of Justice for England and Wales determined that single people can apply to be recognized as the legal parents of a child following a surrogacy arrangement. The law was subsequently changed in December 2018 to allow an application from an individual, subject to conditions, including that he/she is genetically related to the child.
4. Is there a legal definition of the term “surrogacy”? Yes. Two definitions (of Surrogate mother and Surrogacy Arrangement) in the Surrogacy Arrangements Act 1985 cover this:
England, Wales and Northern Ireland.
“Surrogate mother” means a woman who carries a child in pursuance of an arrangement.
- Made before she began to carry the child, and
- Made with a view to any child carried in pursuance of it being handed over to, and parental responsibility being met (so far as practicable by, another person or other persons.
An arrangement is a surrogacy arrangement if, where a woman to whom the arrangement relates to carry a child in pursuance of it, she would be a surrogate mother.
Scotland
“Surrogate mother” means a woman who carries a child in pursuance of an arrangement.
- Made before she began to carry the child, and
- Made with a view to any child carried in pursuance of it being handed over to, and the parental right being exercised (so far as practicable) by, another person or other persons.
An arrangement is a surrogacy arrangement if, were a woman whom the arrangement relates to carry a child in pursuance of it, she would be a surrogate mother.
United Kingdom -
Applicable law
11. If surrogacy is forbidden, is the conduct of the following persons criminalised by the law? NA
a. surrogate mother
b. intended parent(s)
c. gamete donor
d. facilitator
12. Subject to the applicable law, are you aware of the following unlawful practices in your country? No
a. remuneration of the surrogate
b. remuneration of the gamete donor
c. advertising for surrogacy services There are an increasing number of on-line adverts and companies advertising surrogacy packages in other countries, that are unlawful in the UK, but due to foreign servers they cannot be stopped from viewing in the UK.
d. remuneration of facilitators
e. any other unlawful practices (please specify)
United Kingdom -
Financial aspects
7. If surrogacy is allowed, is it lawful for the surrogate mother to receive: Reasonable expenses only. Under the provisions of the Human Fertilisation & Embryology Act 1990 (as amended 2008) a surrogate may receive reasonable expenses, however, “expenses” are not defined in the Act. No money or other benefits may be provided for any part of the surrogacy arrangement unless authorised by a Court.
a. refund of medical expenses N/A
b. refund of other expenses N/A
c. compensation for loss of income N/A
d. other compensation including non-pecuniary N/A
e. remuneration or comparable advantage N/A
- refund of medical expenses
- refund of other expenses
- compensation for loss of income
- other compensation including non-pecuniary
- remuneration or comparable advantage
United Kingdom -
Legal aspects
5. Is surrogacy prohibited in your country?
a. any form of surrogacy No
b. only specific forms of surrogacy (e.g. commercial) Commercial. Commercial surrogacy arrangements are prohibited under the Surrogacy Arrangements Act 1985.
Cyprus -
Legal regulation
1. Is surrogacy regulated by a specific law in your country? Yes.
The Law on Medically Assisted Reproduction N.69(I) (initially approved by the Cyprus Parliament in 2015). This law has been revised in July 2016 regarding the qualifications of the Members of the Board on Medically Assisted Reproduction. More importantly, however, Article 23 of the 2015 Law has been amended and the details are given below:
- Before the amendment: Both the woman (wishing to have a child) and the surrogate mother-to-be must have had their permanent or usual residency addresses in the Republic of Cyprus.
- After the amendment: In the event that a surrogacy mother cannot be found in the Republic of Cyprus, then the Board on Medically Assisted Reproduction could grant permission for the surrogacy mother not to have a permanent or usual residency address in Cyprus.
2. Is surrogacy regulated in another way? (please specify) Yes.
According to Article 24(1) of the Law [N.69(I)/(2015)], following the appropriate authorization by the Board of Medically Assisted Reproduction a Court order is also required to regulate issues that would lead to the successful implementation of the surrogacy agreement.
3. Has surrogacy been the subject of jurisprudence/court cases in your country? Yes. However, Court Cases in Cyprus, in reference to surrogacy, concern surrogacy disputes that have originated from agreements carried out in other Countries.
4. Is there a legal definition of the term “surrogacy”? (please specify) Yes. According to the Law, surrogacy is the case during which a woman carries and gives birth to a child on behalf of a couple following the transfer, using in-vitro fertilization methods, of an embryo produced with genetic material unrelated to the surrogate mother.
Cyprus -
Parentage
13. Who is recognised as the legal parent(s) of a child born following surrogacy?
a. surrogate mother No
b. oocyte donor No
c. sperm donor No
d. intended mother Yes
e. intended father Yes
14. Do mechanisms exist to transfer parentage from the surrogate mother to the intended parent(s) (e.g. adoption procedures)? Yes. In accordance with Article 25 of the Law, immediately after the birth of a child through surrogacy, parentage is immediately transferred to the intended parents.
15. Is the existence of a genetic link required for establishing paternity/maternity? No
16. Are the other parties involved mentioned in the birth certificate or other official document connected to the birth?
a. surrogate mother No
b. oocyte donor No
c. sperm donor No
d. intended mother Yes
e. intended father Yes
17. Are foreign birth certificates in surrogacy cases registered in your country? We do not have any information on this to allow us to answer this question