Until recently in Ireland the provision of assisted human reproduction (AHR) services was largely unregulated. However, in April 2015 Parliament passed the Children and Family Relationships Act which deals with the limited topic of parentage in the case of donor assisted human reproduction. Under the Children and Family Relationships Act 2015, gamete and embryo donation are permitted on a non-anonymous basis. In addition, this legislation provides for the establishment of a national register of gamete/embryo donors, recipients and donor-conceived children (the National Donor-Conceived Person Register), which will allow donor-conceived children to access certain information regarding the gamete/embryo donor involved in procedures leading to their conception.
Moreover, although AHR services are not currently regulated by any specific health legislation, in February 2015, the Minister for Health received Government approval to draft a General Scheme of legislative provisions which would deal with a wide range of issues from the beginning to the end of the AHR process. Following the completion of the General Scheme, the Government approved its publication and the drafting of a Bill on assisted human reproduction based on this General Scheme. The drafting of this Bill is currently ongoing.
Under the proposed legislation, a number of practices will be regulated, including gamete and embryo donation, surrogacy and the assignment of parentage in such cases, pre-implantation genetic screening/diagnosis, sex selection for medical purposes, and posthumous assisted reproduction as well as associated research. It is also proposed that the legislation will establish a regulator to promote patient safety and good clinical practice in the area of assisted human reproduction. The regulator will maintain the National Donor-Conceived Person Register, establish the National Surrogacy Register and maintain records of all assisted human reproduction activities and services.
In January 2018 the General Scheme was submitted to the relevant parliamentary committee for review as part of the pre-legislative scrutiny process. This committee published the report of its review in July 2019, making recommendations which include proposals related to both broad policy objectives and more technical amendments. Its recommendations are being considered during the ongoing process of drafting the AHR Bill.
2. Are there specific criteria for access to MAP?
Medical reasons:
a. Infertility:
For a heterosexual couple? Yes. The couple must have attempted natural conception for a reasonable period of time, unless inapplicable.; For women not living in a heterosexual couple? No
b. Risk of transmission of a disease
For a heterosexual couple Yes?; For women not living in a heterosexual couple? Yes
The parents’ state of health may be assessed (including parents’ age, if life expectancy considering illnesses is above 18 yrs, the ability to give the child good living conditions; an assessment in the child’s best interest)
c. Other N/A
16. Is donation of sperm/oocytes/embryos anonymous?
sperm No / oocytes - / embryos -
17. Is it possible to obtain information about the biological origin of a child born after gametes of embryo donation?
i. For the child him or herself Yes.
Sperm donation in accordance with Art. 18 ff. RMA is the only permissible heterologous reproductive method in Switzerland. The child conceived by means of heterologous sperm donation has a right of access to certain relevant data, including the appearance, name, place of residence, date of birth, nationality, education and profession of the donor (Art. 24 para. 2 lit. a and d RMA), without having to claim a legitimate interest. The minor child also has a right to information, provided that there is a legitimate interest, often a medical interest (Art. 27 para. 2 RMA).
ii. For the parents No; iii. For a court Yes, if necessary, in particular in the context of paternity proceedings or proceedings to challenge the presumption of marriageability.
a. Identity of the donor(s)
i. For the child him or herself Yes; ii. For the parents No; iii. For a court Yes, if necessary
b. Certain health information concerning the donor(s)
i. For the child him or herself Yes; ii. For the parents No; iii. For a court No
Yes, in the case of procreation through sperm donation, if certain requirements are met:
If you can claim an interest worthy of protection (for example, for medical reasons), you will receive further information, such as the results transmitted by the doctors for the medical examination (Art. 27 para. 2 RMA).
c. Other information
i. For the child him or herself Yes; ii. For the parents No; iii. For a court No
Yes, in addition to information on origin, the child may also request information on occupation, education and physical appearance (Art. 27 para. 1 RMA). He or she may request information about all the donor's data - including the date of the sperm donation and the results of the medical examination - if he or she has an interest worthy of protection (Art. 27 para. 2 RMA). At the request of the sperm donor, further donor data in addition to the data mentioned in Art. 24 FMedG, namely pictures of the donor, are retained (Art. 17 RMA).
18. Is it possible to contest maternity and paternity of children born utilising MAP and under which conditions? No. Art. 256 para. 3 Swiss Civil Code; Art. 23 RMA
3. Are MAP procedures covered by the social security system? No. First step is made to cover one cycle in case of bilateral tubectomy.
4. Are there specific criteria for such coverage? Yes.
5. Is the financial coverage limited to a number of MAP procedures? Yes. Only one IVF procedure.
2. Are there specific criteria for access to MAP?
Medical reasons:
a. Infertility:
For a heterosexual couple? Yes; For women not living in a heterosexual couple? NA
b. Risk of transmission of a disease
For a heterosexual couple Yes?; For women not living in a heterosexual couple? NA
c. Other N/A
1. Is access to medically assisted procreation (MAP)
a. restricted to heterosexual couples? Yes
b. possible for women not living in a heterosexual couple? No.
There is no specific legislation on the subject. In practice only heterosexual couples are concerned.
3. Are MAP procedures covered by the social security system? No
4. Are there specific criteria for such coverage? NA
5. Is the financial coverage limited to a number of MAP procedures? Na
19. Is there an important current debate in your country on these or related issues? NA
20. Delegations are invited to provide information, in this section, on particular cases encountered in their country, and especially their case-law.
Homologous insemination in a married couple has no legal incidence: the mother’s spouse becomes the child’s biological father; the means of conception (natural or artificial) has no legal incidence, nor does consent or the lack of it.
Heterologous insemination, on the other hand, raises legal questions concerning filiation. The donor of the sperm is certainly the child’s biological father, but it is impossible to prove legal paternity as the identity of the donor is in principle unknown to the mother and the doctor is sworn to secrecy. Furthermore, no action to prove paternity may be opened in this case as Article 85 para. 1 of the Code of the Family and Guardianship makes sexual intercourse a prerequisite of such action.
The question of the legal paternity of the child thus remains open. In the case of an unmarried woman, action to prove paternity should be excluded, as the donor has the right to remain anonymous. However, if the child is born in wedlock or within 300 days of the marriage being dissolved or annulled, the mother’s husband is presumed to be the legal father. He may take action to contest his paternity within six months of finding out about the birth (art. 63). This is a peremptory time limit, after which only the public prosecutor may institute such proceedings.
The situation is more complex in the event of heterologous insemination carried out with the husband’s consent. As there are no specific legal provisions in the matter, the husband has the right to contest his paternity even though he did give his consent. Theoretically he only needs to prove that the birth was the result of MAP. However, according to a decision of the Court of Cassation on 27 October 1983: “Action by the spouse of the mother contesting paternity of a child born following MAP performed, with said spouse’s consent, with the sperm of another man may be considered contrary to public policy.” In stating its reasons, the Court stressed the importance of the child’s welfare, arguing that if it were to accept an action contesting the father’s paternity of a child born following MAP carried out with his consent using another man’s sperm, the child would, to all intents and purposes, be fatherless; it would be virtually impossible to prove the paternity of the donor because of the rules protecting his anonymity. And the donor has no interest in proving his paternity. This interpretation also takes into account the interests of the family formed subsequent to the couple’s decision to have recourse to MAP.
1. Is access to medically assisted procreation (MAP)
a. restricted to heterosexual couples? No
b. possible for women not living in a heterosexual couple? Yes
Any women – even being single and without any sexual relationship, and without infertility can go to a specific ART centre and ask for artificial insemination
16. Is donation of sperm/oocytes/embryos anonymous? Na
17. Is it possible to obtain information about the biological origin of a child born after gametes of embryo donation?
i. For the child him or herself ; ii. For the parents; iii. For a court NA
a. Identity of the donor(s)
i. For the child him or herself ; ii. For the parents; iii. For a court NA
b. Certain health information concerning the donor(s)
i. For the child him or herself ; ii. For the parents; iii. For a court NA
c. Other information
i. For the child him or herself ; ii. For the parents; iii. For a court NA
18. Is it possible to contest maternity and paternity of children born utilising MAP and under which conditions? NA
3. Are MAP procedures covered by the social security system? Infertility is followed free of charge, the healthcare system covering 2 pharmacological treatment cycles and the pre and post implantation. The gametes extraction techniques, fertilisation, implantation and embryo storage at Italian specialised structures are the responsibility of the couple as well as any subsequent treatment cycles to the two provided free of charge.
4. Are there specific criteria for such coverage? No. See comments on relative legal instruments.
5. Is the financial coverage limited to a number of MAP procedures? Yes. See comment to question 3.
16. Is donation of sperm/oocytes/embryos anonymous?
sperm Yes / oocytes Yes / embryos Yes
17. Is it possible to obtain information about the biological origin of a child born after gametes of embryo donation?
i. For the child him or herself Yes; ii. For the parents Yes; iii. For a court Yes
a. Identity of the donor(s)
i. For the child him or herself Yes; ii. For the parents Yes; iii. For a court Yes
b. Certain health information concerning the donor(s)
i. For the child him or herself Yes; ii. For the parents Yes; iii. For a court Yes
c. Other information
i. For the child him or herself Yes; ii. For the parents Yes; iii. For a court Yes
18. Is it possible to contest maternity and paternity of children born utilising MAP and under which conditions? NA
1. Is access to medically assisted procreation (MAP)
a. restricted to heterosexual couples? Yes. Art. 5: MAP is available to heterosexual couples living in marriage or in extra-marital relationship, which must exist at the time the procedure is performed.
b. possible for women not living in a heterosexual couple? No
2. Are there specific criteria for access to MAP?
Medical reasons:
a. Infertility:
For a heterosexual couple? Yes; For women not living in a heterosexual couple? Yes
b. Risk of transmission of a disease
For a heterosexual couple Yes?; For women not living in a heterosexual couple? Yes
c. Other N/A
3. Are MAP procedures covered by the social security system? Yes. Indeed, infertility is considered a medical condition of the couple.
4. Are there specific criteria for such coverage? Yes. The criteria are the same as those entitling the couple to MAP. These include infertility not treatable in other ways, age appropriate for pregnancy (the upper age limit for the woman is 43 years) and parenthood, the need to avoid transmission of a serious genetic disorder.
5. Is the financial coverage limited to a number of MAP procedures? Yes. Up to four IVF procedures are covered. The rate of pregnancies achieved is among the highest in Europe, in spite of the fact that since 1999, a maximum of two embryos is transferred in a single MAP procedure.
1. Is access to medically assisted procreation (MAP)
a. restricted to heterosexual couples? Yes
b. possible for women not living in a heterosexual couple? Yes
19. Is there an important current debate in your country on these or related issues?
Not at present. However, in 2001, an amended law on medically assisted procreation was passed, making, among other things, the MAP services freely accessible to single women without male partners and without a medical fertility problem, which under the previous law (2000) had not been possible. An opposition group in the Parliament called for a legislative referendum, triggering fervent public debate. The National Medical Ethics Committee (NMEC) and the National Health Council advised against arbitrary use of medicine for interventions with far reaching consequences, when, such as in this case, there is no valid medical indication. The NMEC quoted the Ad Hoc Committee of Experts on Progress in Biomedical Sciences (CAHBI)’s Report on human artificial procreation, 1989, which restricts the use of MAP procedures to heterosexual couples and to the situations with strict medical indications (infertility, failure of other methods of treatment, need to avoid transmission of a grave disease) as in fact contained in the previous law.
In the referendum, the voters rejected the new law with an overwhelming, nearly 3:1, majority. As a result, the law of 2000 described above remained in force.
20. Delegations are invited to provide information, in this section, on particular cases encountered in their country, and especially their case-law.
The matter of the law is published in:
ZUPANCIC, Karel, MEDEN-VRTOVEC, Helena, TOMAZEVIC, Tomaz, ZNIDARSIC, Viktorija. The future law on infertility treatment and on biomedically assisted procreation in Slovenia. J. assist. reprod. genet., Oct. 2000, vol. 17, issue 9, pp. 496-497.
(The paper refers to the draft, but the final version is essentially unchanged).
Information on some other aspects of the legislation and practice of MAP in Slovenia are contained in a IFFS survey (See Addendum).
2. Are there specific criteria for access to MAP?
Medical reasons:
a. Infertility:
For a heterosexual couple? Yes; For women not living in a heterosexual couple? N/A
b. Risk of transmission of a disease
For a heterosexual couple Yes?; For women not living in a heterosexual couple? N/A
Risk of transmission of serious genetically determined disease (Art. 5).
c. Other N/A
6. Is donation of sperm/oocytes/embryos permitted in your country? sperm Yes/oocytes Yes/embryos Yes
7. Are there specific compensation arrangements for donations of sperm/oocytes/embryos? Yes. The National Commission for Assisted Reproduction approved in 1998 the figure of 600 euros as compensation for the expense and inconvenience of the donor. Currently some private clinics are paying 1000 euros.
8. Are there specific criteria for donation of sperm/oocytes/embryos? sperm Yes/oocytes Yes/embryos Yes
Sperm donor: no more than 50 years old. Oocyte donor: no more than 35 years old.
9. Are there specific non-medical criteria for selection of gametes/embryos to be used for MAP? Yes. Matching appearance and immunological compatibility of donor and future parent(s).
10. Are there special measures for the prevention of consanguinity? Yes. No donor can be parent of more than six children. This is controlled through the National Registry of Donors and the banks of the clinics of assisted reproduction.
11. In a homosexual couple, is a legal relationship possible between a child and the partner of the legal parent? No
19. Is there an important current debate in your country on these or related issues? The Spanish Surrogate Association is promoting the legalisation of this method as another Assisted Reproductive Technology.
20. Delegations are invited to provide information, in this section, on particular cases encountered in their country, and especially their case-law. -
2. Are there specific criteria for access to MAP?
Medical reasons:
a. Infertility:
For a heterosexual couple? Yes; For women not living in a heterosexual couple? No
b. Risk of transmission of a disease
For a heterosexual couple No?; For women not living in a heterosexual couple? No
c. Other N/A
3. Are MAP procedures covered by the social security system? Yes
4. Are there specific criteria for such coverage? Yes. Married, infertile couples, older than 23, younger than 40 years old can benefit from assisted reproduction (IVF) techniques
5. Is the financial coverage limited to a number of MAP procedures? No
19. Is there an important current debate in your country on these or related issues? As referred to at 18 above, in cases where the agreed parenthood conditions of the HFE Act 2008 have not been met, legal parenthood does not automatically follow for the second parent. In such cases one of the only remedies for the second parent to seek a declaration of legal parenthood from the Court. See for example the recent case (Neutral Citation Number: [2015] EWHC 2602 (Fam) which can be found here: https://www.judiciary.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/parentage.pdf
20. Delegations are invited to provide information, in this section, on particular cases encountered in their country, and especially their case-law.
R (TT) v Registrar General for England and Wales & Ors ((2019) EWHC 2384 (Fam))
The case concerns a transgender man (TT) who has a gender recognition certificate (GRC) confirming that he is male for all legal purposes except the limited exceptions set out in the Gender Recognition Act 2004 (GRA). TT had artificial insemination using donor sperm in a licenced fertility clinic, fell pregnant as a result, gave birth to a child, in 2017. He tried to register the birth as the father but was refused by the Registrar General (RG) who was only able to register the birth with TT as the mother. The birth has remained unregistered.
The judgement was handed down on 25 September 2019. The judge supported the Government’s position that a person who gives birth to a child (i.e. including a trans man such as TT) will be the child’s mother. The Government’s view is that the judgment has no effect on the availability of regulated fertility treatment in the UK. The Government considers that regulated fertility treatment is currently, and will remain, equally available to all (trans) women and (trans) men under the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Acts.
16. Is donation of sperm/oocytes/embryos anonymous?
sperm No / oocytes No / embryos No
Due to amendments to the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act – the law overseeing the use of fertility treatment in the UK – donor conceived people born after 1 April 2005 can request identifying information about their donor from the HFEA once they reach 18 years old. This, however, means that there are different information access rights depending on when the donor conceived person was conceived. These are set out below.
17. Is it possible to obtain information about the biological origin of a child born after gametes of embryo donation?
i. For the child him or herself Yes; ii. For the parents No; iii. For a court Yes
The HFE Act 1990 (as amended) allows donor conceived people to apply for non- identifying information about the donor, if available, such as family medical history, hair/eye colour and interests, when they reach 16. If they were conceived after 1 April 2005, when the donor conceived person reaches 18 years old, they may apply to the HFEA to receive identifying information about their donor.
Parents of children conceived through donor conception can access non identifying information about the donor from the HFEA.
Section 34 of the HFE Act 1990 permits the Authority to make disclosure where it is necessary for the purposes of instituting proceedings under the Congenital Disabilities Act.
a. Identity of the donor(s)
i. For the child him or herself Yes; ii. For the parents No; iii. For a court Yes
b. Certain health information concerning the donor(s)
i. For the child him or herself Yes; ii. For the parents Yes; iii. For a court Yes
c. Other information
i. For the child him or herself Yes; ii. For the parents Yes; iii. For a court Yes
18. Is it possible to contest maternity and paternity of children born utilising MAP and under which conditions? Yes.
Whether patients’ own gametes are used in assisted fertility treatment or whether donor gametes are used, where the couple is either married or in a civil partnership, both parents will be the legal parents of any child born from the treatment from the date of birth of the child. The law endeavours to put couples who have had assisted fertility treatment in a similar position to couples who conceive naturally as regards legal parenthood and parental responsibility. It is however possible for the father or second parent (in the case of a female same sex couple who are in a civil partnership) to resist legal parenthood but only where the person can demonstrate that he or she did not consent to their partner’s treatment (see section 35(1) and section 42(1) of the HFE Act 2008).
When donor gametes are used in treatment, and where the couple having treatment is neither married nor in a civil partnership, the second parent (i.e. not the birth mother) can acquire legal parentage if the agreed parenthood conditions are met (see section 37 and 44 of the HFE Act 2008). In cases where the agreed parenthood conditions are not met, parenthood will be in question and in order to establish legal parenthood, the couple would need to seek a declaration of parenthood from Court.
Further information on legal parenthood can be found on these pages of the HFEA website:
https://www.hfea.gov.uk/treatments/explore-all-treatments/becoming-the-legal-parents-of-your-child/
Definitions of mother and father in accordance to (HFE) Act 2008 are as follows:
Meaning of "mother"
(1) The woman who is carrying or has carried a child as a result of the placing in her of an embryo or of sperm and eggs, and no other woman, is to be treated as the mother of the child.
(2) Subsection (1) does not apply to any child to the extent that the child is treated by virtue of adoption as not being the woman’s child.
(3) Subsection (1) applies whether the woman was in the United Kingdom or elsewhere at the time of the placing in her of the embryo or the sperm and eggs.
Meaning of "father"
35 Women married at time of treatment
(1) If -
(a) at the time of the placing in her of the embryo or of the sperm and eggs or of her artificial insemination, the woman was a party to a marriage, and
(b) the creation of the embryo carried by her was not brought about with the sperm of the other party to the marriage, then, subject to section 38(2) to (4), the other party to the marriage is to be treated as the father of the child unless it is shown that he did not consent to the placing in her of the embryo or the sperm and eggs or to her artificial insemination (as the case may be).
(2) This section applies whether the woman was in the United Kingdom or elsewhere at the time mentioned in subsection (1)(a)
19. Is there an important current debate in your country on these or related issues? It is necessary to renew Decree of the Ministry of Health.
20. Delegations are invited to provide information, in this section, on particular cases encountered in their country, and especially their case-law. NA
2. Are there specific criteria for access to MAP?
Medical reasons:
a. Infertility:
For a heterosexual couple? Yes; For women not living in a heterosexual couple? Yes
b. Risk of transmission of a disease
For a heterosexual couple Yes?; For women not living in a heterosexual couple? Yes
c. Other Yes
There is a screening on sexually transmitted diseases.
16. Is donation of sperm/oocytes/embryos anonymous?
sperm No / oocytes No / embryos NA. Sperm or oocyte donors cannot be anonymous.
17. Is it possible to obtain information about the biological origin of a child born after gametes of embryo donation?
i. For the child him or herself Yes; ii. For the parents No; iii. For a court No. Children born after sperm donation have the right to know the identity of their donor when they (the children) reach the age of 15 (or 18 for those born from sperm donated before 2021).
a. Identity of the donor(s)
i. For the child him or herself Yes; ii. For the parents No; iii. For a court No.
b. Certain health information concerning the donor(s)
i. For the child him or herself No; ii. For the parents No; iii. For a court No. For donors recruited in Norway, the parents will be familiar with the general criteria for selection of a donor (good physical and mental health, no serious inheritable disease; as well as the test regimes) but will not have any other information about the donor. Norway allows import of sperm or oocytes from banks established outside of Norway, but only if they can provide sperm/oocytes from open donors, and in conformity with the relevant EC directives. Oocytes can only be imported from other Nordic countries.
c. Other information
i. For the child him or herself Yes; ii. For the parents No; iii. For a court No. At the age of 15 (or 18, se previous text), the child can obtain information about the identity of the donor (name and address according to the registry and if necessary, date of birth and national identity number). This is the only information that will be provided.
18. Is it possible to contest maternity and paternity of children born utilising MAP and under which conditions? Yes.
according to family law the woman who gave birth to a child is the child's mother.
16. Is donation of sperm/oocytes/embryos anonymous? sperm Yes/oocytes Yes/embryos -
See art.18 reg.568/1997 (If a donor wishes to remain anonymous, health workers are obliged to ensure that this is respected. In this case, the donor may neither receive information about the couple receiving the donated gamete or the child, nor the couple or the child receive information about the donor. If a donor does not wish to remain anonymous, the institution shall preserve information about him in a special file. If the donation of gamete leads to the birth of a child, information about the child and the couple who received the gamete shall be kept in the same file. A child born on account of a gamete donation where the donor does not wish to remain anonymous can at the age of 18 gain access to a file pursuant to paragraph 2 for the purpose of obtaining information about the identity of the donor. If a child receives information about the gamete donor at the institution, the said institution shall as soon as possible inform the donor that the information has been given.)
17. Is it possible to obtain information about the biological origin of a child born after gametes of embryo donation?
i. For the child him or herself Yes; ii. For the parents No; iii. For a court No
The child cannot obtain information if the donor has wished to remain anonymous, See art.18 reg.568/1997.
a. Identity of the donor(s)
i. For the child him or herself Yes; ii. For the parents No; iii. For a court No
The child cannot obtain information if the donor has wished to remain anonymous, See art.18 reg.568/1997.
b. Certain health information concerning the donor(s)
i. For the child him or herself Yes; ii. For the parents No; iii. For a court No
The child cannot obtain information if the donor has wished to remain anonymous, See art.18 reg.568/1997.
c. Other information
i. For the child him or herself Yes; ii. For the parents No; iii. For a court No
The child cannot obtain information if the donor has wished to remain anonymous, See art.18 reg.568/1997.
18. Is it possible to contest maternity and paternity of children born utilising MAP and under which conditions? No. See art.6, Act in respect of Children, no. 76/2003 (A man who has agreed that his wife be artificially inseminated according to the Act on is deemed to be the father of a child so conceived. The same applies to a man and a woman who have registered their cohabitation with the National Registry. A man who donates sperm for the purpose of it being used in artificial insemination of a woman other than his wife or cohabiting spouse, cf. paragraph 1, according to the provisions of the Act on Artificial Insemination will not be deemed to be the father of a child conceived with his sperm. -A man who donates sperm for another purpose than stipulated in paragraph 2 is deemed to be the father of a child conceived with his sperm unless the sperm is used without his knowledge or after his decease.)